Progressing nanotechnology to improve targeted cancer treatment: overcoming hurdles in its clinical implementation

Table 13 Nanocarrier toxicity profiles

Nanocarrier Type	Toxicity Endpoint	Dose–Response	Time Course	Mechanism of Toxicity	Mitigation Strategies	References
Liposomes	Hepatotoxicity	Dose-dependent	Acute	Reactive oxygen species-induced apoptosis	Use of antioxidants; reduction of drug dose	[13]
Polymeric nanoparticles	Nephrotoxicity	Nonlinear	Sub-acute	Accumulation in renal tubules and glomeruli	Use of PEGylation; adjustment of molecular weight	[90, 102]
Carbon nanotubes	Pulmonary toxicity	Dose-dependent	Chronic	Inflammation, oxidative stress, fibrosis, and granuloma formation	Surface modification; reduction of length and aspect ratio	[90, 102]
Gold nanoparticles	Cytotoxicity	Dose-dependent	Sub-chronic	Uptake and accumulation in mitochondria, inducing oxidative stress and apoptosis	Surface coating; use of size-limited particles	[121]
Iron oxide nanoparticles	Hemotoxicity	Dose-dependent	Acute	ROS-induced apoptosis; complement activation	Surface coating; chelation of iron ions	[121]
Dendrimers	Neurotoxicity	Dose-dependent	Sub-acute	BBB disruption, microglial activation, oxidative stress	Modification of dendrimer size and surface charge; use of biodegradable dendrimers	[99]

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