Fig. 21

Impact of nanomaterial physical properties on immune cell function. A, T cell immunity is affected by substrate stiffness and external forces. Rigid substrates facilitate the formation of immunological synapses with T cells, enhancing their cytotoxic capabilities. Mechanical stress activates T cells by stimulating PIEZO1 mechanosensory ion channels. Substrate rigidity is also crucial for regulating natural killer (NK) cell immunity. B cells selectively extract antigens from APCs based on the rigidity of the APC membranes. B, Several physical factors in nanomaterial design influence T cell activation. The dimensions and surface charges of nanomaterials modify direct binding to T cell receptors. The size and multivalency of nanoparticles mimicking APCs affect T cell activation and growth. Multivalent spiky protein nanoparticles interact more effectively with B cell receptors, promoting antibody production compared to uncoated spike proteins. Reprint from [130] with a permission from Springer Nature